Lesson 2: Schema objects

Schema objects

Learning objectives

Gain an understanding of schema objects available within MariaDB
Learn how to use and create databases and tables, including temporal data tables, and flexible and invisible columns
Discuss data types and built-in functions, and their use cases
Learn how to create and use views, triggers, events, and sequences

Databases, tables and default schemas

Case sensitivity

Depending on Operating System, File System and lower_case_table_names

Set before starting a project (strongly recommended)!

Usually case sensitive by default on Linux, not so on Windows and MacOS

Adopt a convention, such as always creating and referring to databases and tables using lowercase names

Databases

Database aka Schema

Highest Level Object
Corresponds to directory within data directory
All other objects reside within a database except user accounts, roles and plugins

CREATE DATABASE world;

Tables

Stores rows of structured data organised by typed columns

Each corresponds to a metadata file (.frm) and data file(s), dependent on storage engine
(i.e. InnoDB tablespaces)

Qualified by a database name
(i.e. database.table)

Columns

Set of typed data values
Qualified by a table name
(i.e. table.column)
Stored together in each row (MariaDB Server) within pages, within tablespaces or data files
Virtual generated columns are not stored at all
Index

Column attributes

Columns have strict type definitions

Can specify DEFAULT value for column

Only Primary Key can be automatically incremented

CREATE TABLE people (
    id INT AUTO_INCREMENT KEY,
    name VARCHAR(20) DEFAULT 'unknown'
);

Columns can be NULL, unless defined NOT NULL

NULL means “No Value”, “Not Applicable”, or “Unknown”
Use NULL when value is not an empty string
NOT NULL
- Reduces storage in some Engines
- Can also reduce execution time because there are more CPU cycles used to first check for NULL

Indexes

Exact copy of selected columns followed by primary key (e.g., name,address,ID)
- For long columns the index might not be an “exact copy”, but instead it might contain a prefix of the column
Fast lookup of data within a table, without having to scan all columns for each row
For InnoDB, primary key is silently appended to end of secondary indexes, unless specified elsewhere within index
Attribute of a table

Constraints

Types: Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique and Check
Support and implementation differs per storage engine
Allows data within column(s) to be limited or constrained to a set of values
Usually defined with corresponding index
Attribute of a table
Has potential for contention at scale

Views

Virtual table defined by a SQL SELECT query
Evaluated at each access
- No materialized views
Treated as a table for many purposes, shares namespace with tables
Updateable in certain cases (WITH CHECK OPTION)
Qualified by database (database.view)

Stored routines

Types: Functions, Triggers, Events, and Stored Procedures
Has input and output parameters
Reusable SQL Code
- SQL/PSM (default)
- PL/SQL (sql_mode=ORACLE)
Can allow cursor loops
Runtime script, not compiled or binary
Lack of good debugging, can be hard to profile
Can be bad for Statement based binary logging
Stored routine uses the privileges of the user that defined it (user can be changed with the DEFINER clause)
If SQL SECURITY INVOKER is set then the privileges of the user executing the stored routine are used
Qualified by database (database.my_stored_procedure)

Default schemas

information_schema

The encyclopedia of your database
Contains information on databases, tables, columns, procedures, indexes, statistics, partitions and views
Plugins can install additional information_schema tables

mysql

Stores information on:

Server configuration
Grants and timezones
User accounts
Roles
Stored procedure definitions
Stored function definitions
Event definitions
Plugins installed by INSTALL SONAME/INSTALL PLUGIN

performance_schema

Metrics and performance data
Will be covered in Tuning & optimization Module

Creating your first table

CREATE TABLE city (
    ID INT(11) NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
    Name CHAR(35) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
    CountryCode CHAR(3) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
    District CHAR(20) NOT NULL DEFAULT '',
    Population INT(11) NOT NULL DEFAULT '0',
    PRIMARY KEY (ID),
    KEY CountryCode (CountryCode),
    CONSTRAINT FOREIGN KEY (CountryCode)
    REFERENCES country (Code)
) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8;

Name and type of object being created
Column Definitions
Define Primary Key, Secondary Indexes and Constraints
Define Engine, Partitions, Character Set and other attributes

Altering tables

ALTER TABLE is used to change a table’s schema

ADD COLUMN to Add a Column

DROP COLUMN to Drop a Column — Deletes Data

CHANGE COLUMN and MODIFY COLUMN to Alter a Column

ALTER TABLE table1
ADD COLUMN col5 CHAR(8),
DROP COLUMN col3,
CHANGE COLUMN col4 col6 DATE,
MODIFY COLUMN col8 VARCHAR(10);

Basic Syntax Example for ALTER TABLE Statement

Temporal tables

Type	Tracks	Sample Use Cases
System-Versioned	Change history	Audit, forensics, IoT temperature tracking
Application-Time Period	Time-limited values	Sales offers, subscriptions
Bitemporal	Time-limited values with history	Schedules, decision support models

Temporal tables

System-Versioned Example

CREATE TABLE accounts (
    id INT PRIMARY KEY AUTO_INCREMENT,
    name VARCHAR(255),
    amount INT
) WITH SYSTEM VERSIONING;

Application-Time Period Example

CREATE TABLE coupons (
    id INT UNSIGNED,
    date_start DATE,
    date_end DATE,
    PERIOD FOR
    valid_period(date_start, date_end)
);

Bitemporal Example

CREATE TABLE coupons_new (
    id INT UNSIGNED,
    name VARCHAR(255),
    date_start DATE,
    date_end DATE,
    PERIOD FOR
    valid_period(date_start, date_end)
) WITH SYSTEM VERSIONING;

Data types and built-in functions

Data types

Types: Binary, Numeric, String, Temporal, and User Defined

Use the most suitable data type to store all possible, required values
Will truncate silently and rounds (sql_mode)

MariaDB [(none)]> help INT;
Name: 'INT'
Description: INT[(M)] [UNSIGNED] [ZEROFILL]

A normal-size integer. The signed range is -2147483648 to 2147483647. The unsigned range is 0 to 4294967295.

URL: https://mariadb.com/kb/en/mariadb/data-types-numeric-data-types/

Numeric data types

FLOAT and DOUBLE are approximate types
- Uses 4 and 8 bytes IEEE storage format
DECIMAL (m, d) maximum total number of digits, number of digits after decimal point
- An Exact Value type, up to 65 digits precision, 4 bytes storage for each multiple of nine digits
NUMERIC is a synonym for DECIMAL
REAL is a synonym for DOUBLE
- Unless in REAL_AS_FLOAT SQL mode

Auto increment

Use LAST_INSERT_ID() to get value generated for client connection
SERIAL is a synonym for BIGINT UNSIGNED NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT UNIQUE
In Aria the counter can be set back manually or if counter value wraps
InnoDB
- Prepares AUTO_INCREMENT counters when the MariaDB Server starts
- Single mutex on a table, behavior changed with innodb_autoinc_lock_mode

0 | default, Traditional

Holds table-level lock for all INSERTs until end of statement

1 Consecutive

Holds table-level lock for all bulk INSERTs (such as LOAD DATA or INSERT ... SELECT) until end of statement
For simple INSERTs, no table-level lock held

2 Interleaved

No table-level locks are held ever
Fastest and most scalable
Not safe for statement-based replication
Generated IDs are not always consecutive

Numeric data types

Use UNSIGNED when appropriate
INT(n) specifies display precision, not storage precision
Size and precision is storage engine dependent
Define handling of Out-of-Range Values with sql_mode
- Default Mode: Values are Truncated Silently
- Strict Mode: Errors are Generated
BIGINT can enumerate more than all the ants on Earth and shouldn’t be your default choice
TINYINT(1) is used for BOOLEAN values and is aliased by the BOOLEAN type

String data types

MariaDB provides several string data types to store character data efficiently. These types are used for everything from single-character codes to large-scale text documents, and they are defined by their maximum length, character set, and collation.

CHAR(n) - Number of characters, not bytes, wide
- Always stores n characters
- Automatically pads with spaces for shorter strings
VARCHAR(n) - Variable length up to maximum n characters
- Changes to CHAR in Implicit Temporary Tables and mysqld internal buffers
- 256 characters and longer treated as TEXT
- For InnoDB, this maximum will depend on the row format
TEXT - Large text object
- Up to 65,535 (2^16 - 1) characters
- Not supported by the MEMORY Storage Engine
- MariaDB uses ARIA for implicit on-disk temporary tables
TINYTEXT - Text type limited up to 255 (2^8 - 1) characters
MEDIUMTEXT - Text type limited up to 16,777,215 (2^24 - 1) characters
LONGTEXT - Text type limited up to 4,294,967,295 (2^32 - 1) characters

String data attributes

String columns are defined by a Character Set and a Collation. These can be inherited from the server or database, or set specifically at the table or column level.

Character Sets: Determine how characters are encoded. Modern MariaDB (10.6+) defaults to utf8mb4 for full Unicode support. Multi-byte sets provide broader character support but increase disk storage and memory requirements.
Collations: A set of rules for comparing and sorting strings. Modern MariaDB uses UCA (Unicode Collation Algorithm) based collations, such as utf8mb4_uca1400_ai_ci, which offer improved linguistic accuracy and can be overridden within specific queries.

Column table and column collation may be defined on table creation. Example below shows couple of variants:

CREATE TABLE t (
    -- colums with charset latin1 and defalult collation
    latin_name text CHARSET latin1,
    -- column with default charset and utf8mb4_general_ci collation
    utf8mb4_name text COLLATE utf8mb4_general_ci,
    -- column with certain charset and collation
    utf8mb3_name text CHARSET utf8mb3 COLLATE utf8mb3_general_ci  
);

How to inspect Character Set and Collation? One of methods - call CREATE TABLE <table name>; command.

|-------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Table | Create Table                                                                          |
|-------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| t     | CREATE TABLE `t` (                                                                    |
|       |   `latin_name` text CHARACTER SET latin1 COLLATE latin1_swedish_ci DEFAULT NULL,      |
|       |   `utf8mb4_name` text CHARACTER SET utf8mb4 COLLATE utf8mb4_general_ci DEFAULT NULL,  |
|       |   `utf8mb3_name` text CHARACTER SET utf8mb3 COLLATE utf8mb3_general_ci DEFAULT NULL   |
|       | ) ENGINE=InnoDB DEFAULT CHARSET=utf8mb4 COLLATE=utf8mb4_uca1400_ai_ci                 |

Try this on SQLize.online

Binary data types

BINARY, VARBINARY and BLOBs can contain data with bytes from the whole range from 0 - 255
Uses a special character set and collation called “binary”
Blobs are often used to store files in a database
- Files on disk are often faster
- But no referential integrity is guaranteed
Blobs are included in transactions, replication, and backups
Blobs inflate mysqld memory usage
Modern InnoDB has some improvements in storage and lookup of blobs

Temporal data types

DATE — from 1000-01-01 to 9999-12-31
- YYYY-MM-DD
TIME [()]
- from -838:59:59 to 838:59:59
DATETIME [()]
- Same ranges as DATE and TIME above
- YYYY-MM-DD HH:mm:ss
TIMESTAMP — Unix timestamp, in seconds from 1970-01-01
- Many Apps Store UNIX_TIMESTAMP() values in unsigned integer field
YEAR — Accepts YYYY

SELECT CURTIME(4);

+---------------+
| CURTIME(4)    |
+---------------+
| 05:33:09.1061 |
+---------------+

Special data types

ENUM is an enumerated list of string values

Holds one of the values listed
Stored as 2-byte integer index, presented as value

CREATE TABLE country (
    Continent ENUM('Asia','Europe','N America','Africa','Oceania','Antarctica','S America') 
 );

SET is a specified list of string values

Can hold one or more values from the defined set

CREATE TABLE countrylanguage (
    CountryCode CHAR(3),
    Language SET('English','French','Mandarin') 
);

INSERT INTO countrylanguage VALUES
    ('CHN','Mandarin'),
    ('CAN','English,French');

INET6 is a data type for storing IPv6 IP addresses as well as IPv4
- Stores as a BINARY(16)
```
CREATE TABLE ipaddress (address INET6);
```

Built-in functions

Types: String, Date and Time, Aggregate, Numeric, Control Flow

Secondary functions such as Bit Functions and Operators, Encryption, Hashing and Compression, and Information Functions

Special Functions such as Dynamic Columns, Geographic, JSON, Spider and Window Functions

Manipulating date & time

Functions for date and time manipulation

ADDDATE()
ADDTIME()
CONVERT_TZ()
CURDATE()
CURTIME()
DATE()
DATE_ADD()
DATE_FORMAT()
DATE_SUB()
DATEDIFF()
DAYNAME()
DAYOFMONTH()
DAYOFWEEK()
DAYOFYEAR()
EXTRACT()
FROM_DAYS()
FROM_UNIXTIME()
GET_FORMAT()
HOUR()
LAST_DAY()
MAKEDATE()
MAKETIME()
MICROSECOND()
MINUTE()
MONTH()
MONTHNAME()
NOW()
PERIOD_ADD()
PERIOD_DIFF()
QUARTER()
SEC_TO_TIME()
SECOND()
STR_TO_DATE()
SUBDATE()
SUBTIME()
SYSDATE()
TIME()
TIME_FORMAT()
TIME_TO_SEC()
TIMEDIFF()
TIMESTAMP()
TIMESTAMPADD()
TIMESTAMPDIFF()
TO_DAYS()
UNIX_TIMESTAMP()
UTC_DATE()
UTC_TIME()
UTC_TIMESTAMP()
WEEK()
WEEKDAY()
WEEKOFYEAR()
YEAR()
YEARWEEK()

Documentation on Date and Time Functions: https://mariadb.com/kb/en/mariadb/date-and-time-functions/

Examples of date & time functions

Used in Queries and Data Manipulation Statements

SELECT NOW() + INTERVAL 1 DAY
         - INTERVAL 1 HOUR
       AS 'Day & Hour Earlier';

+---------------------+
| Day & Hour Earlier  |
+---------------------+
| 2020-06-02 08:32:44 |
+---------------------+

Used in WHERE Clauses

UPDATE table1
SET col3 = 'today', col4 = NOW()
WHERE col5 = CURDATE();

Used in Bulk Load

load data local infile '/tmp/test.csv' into
table test fields terminated by ','
ignore 1 lines (id,@dt1)
set dts=str_to_date(@dt1,'%d/%m/%Y');

Manipulating strings

MariaDB Functions For String Manipulation

ASCII() - Returns the numeric ASCII value of the leftmost character.
BIN() - Returns a string representation of the binary value of a number.
BINARY - Casts a string to a binary string.
BIT_LENGTH() - Returns the length of a string in bits.
CAST() - Converts a value from one data type to another.
CHAR() - Returns the character for each integer passed.
CHARACTER_LENGTH() - Returns the length of a string in characters.
CHAR_LENGTH() - Synonym for CHARACTER_LENGTH().
COALESCE() - Returns the first non-NULL value in a list.
CONCAT() - Concatenates two or more strings.
CONCAT_WS() - Concatenates strings with a separator.
CONVERT() - Converts a value to a different data type or character set.
ELT() - Returns the string at the specified index from a list.
EXPORT_SET() - Returns a string where bits in a value determine the inclusion of “on” or “off” strings.
EXTRACTVALUE() - Extracts a value from an XML string using XPath.
FIELD() - Returns the index of a string within a list of strings.
FIND_IN_SET() - Returns the index of a string within a comma-separated list.
FORMAT() - Formats a number with a specific number of decimal places and locale.
FROM_BASE64() - Decodes a base64-encoded string.
HEX() - Returns a hexadecimal representation of a value.
INSERT() - Inserts a substring into a string at a specific position, replacing a number of characters.
INSTR() - Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring.
LCASE() - Synonym for LOWER().
LEFT() - Returns a specified number of characters from the left of a string.
LENGTH() - Returns the length of a string in bytes.
LIKE - Simple pattern matching using % and _.
LOAD_FILE() - Reads a file and returns the content as a string.
LOCATE() - Returns the position of the first occurrence of a substring.
LOWER() - Converts a string to lowercase.
LPAD() - Left-pads a string with another string to a certain length.
LTRIM() - Removes leading spaces from a string.
MAKE_SET() - Returns a comma-separated list of strings based on bits set in a value.
MATCH AGAINST - Performs full-text searches.
MID() - Synonym for SUBSTRING().
NOT LIKE - Negation of the LIKE pattern matching.
NOT REGEXP - Negation of regular expression pattern matching.
OCTET_LENGTH() - Synonym for LENGTH().
ORD() - Returns the character code for the leftmost character if it is a multi-byte character.
POSITION() - Synonym for LOCATE().
QUOTE() - Escapes a string for use in a SQL statement.
REGEXP() - Pattern matching using regular expressions.
REPEAT() - Repeats a string a specified number of times.
REPLACE() - Replaces all occurrences of a substring with another.
REVERSE() - Reverses the characters in a string.
RIGHT() - Returns a specified number of characters from the right of a string.
RPAD() - Right-pads a string with another string to a certain length.
RTRIM() - Removes trailing spaces from a string.
SOUNDEX() - Returns a Soundex string for phonetically matching words.
SOUNDS LIKE - Compares two strings using Soundex.
SPACE() - Returns a string containing a specified number of spaces.
STRCMP() - Compares two strings and returns 0 if they are identical.
SUBSTR() - Synonym for SUBSTRING().
SUBSTRING() - Extracts a substring from a string starting at a specific position.
SUBSTRING_INDEX() - Returns a substring from a string before a count of occurrences of a delimiter.
TO_BASE64() - Encodes a string into base64 format.
TRIM() - Removes leading and trailing spaces or other specified characters.
UCASE() - Synonym for UPPER().
UNHEX() - Converts hexadecimal data into a binary string.
UPPER() - Converts a string to uppercase.
WEIGHT_STRING() - Returns the binary weight string of a value used for sorting.

Documentation on String Functions: https://mariadb.com/kb/en/library/string-functions/

An example of a string function

Used in queries and data manipulation statements

SELECT domain, domain_count
FROM (
    SELECT
        SUBSTRING(email_address, LOCATE('@', email_address) +1 ) AS domain,
        COUNT(*) AS domain_count
    FROM clients_email
    GROUP BY domain
) AS derived1
WHERE domain_count > 200
LIMIT 100;

Aggregate functions

Aggregate functions perform a calculation on a set of values and return a single result. Typically used in conjunction with the GROUP BY clause, these functions allow you to summarize data across multiple rows.

Common MariaDB Aggregate Functions:

AVG() - Returns the average value of the argument.
COUNT() - Returns a count of the number of non-NULL values in the rows retrieved by a SELECT statement.
SUM() - Returns the sum of the argument.
GROUP_CONCAT() - Returns a string result with the concatenated non-NULL values from a group.
MAX() - Returns the maximum value of the argument.
MIN() - Returns the minimum value of the argument.
STD() - Returns the population standard deviation of the argument.
STDDEV() - An Oracle-compatible synonym for STD(), returning the population standard deviation.
VARIANCE() - Returns the population standard variance of the argument.

Aggregation function examples

Without GROUP BY: Returns a single summary row for all selected rows.

SELECT COUNT(*), AVG(Population), MAX(Population) 
FROM City;

With GROUP BY: Groups the outcome by one or more columns to provide summaries for each group.

SELECT CountryCode, SUM(Population) AS TotalPopulation
FROM City
GROUP BY CountryCode;

DISTINCT Removes Duplicate Values before Aggregation (e.g., with COUNT() and GROUP_CONCAT())

SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM City;

+----------+
| COUNT(*) |
+----------+
| 4079     |
+----------+

SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT CountryCode)
FROM City;

+-----------------------------+
| COUNT(DISTINCT CountryCode) |
+-----------------------------+
| 232                         |
+-----------------------------+

Aggregate multiplication

Using logarithm logic:

A chart shows the rate of return for a publicly traded company over 10 years

With an initial investment of $1,000 in 2009, calculate the value of the investment by 2019

Possible solution:
```
SELECT AVERAGE(ROR) FROM investment;
```
Problem: This would result in an average return of approximately 9.9% over the 10 year span, but it does not take into account compound interest.

Aggregate multiplication

Calculating compound interest: Find each year’s ROR:

SELECT YEAR, 1+ROR AS multiplier, LOG(1+ROR) 
FROM investment;
+------+-----------+---------------------+
| YEAR | multiplier | LOG(1+ROR/100)     |
+------+-----------+---------------------+
| 2010 |     1.44  |     0.36464311193222|
| 2011 |     0.75  |    -0.28768207245178|
| 2012 |     1.08  |     0.07961013948044|
.. 
| 2017 |     1.11  |     0.10436001478726|
| 2018 |     0.92  |    -0.083381606995421|
| 2019 |     0.79  |    -0.23572232522169 |
+------+-----------+---------------------+
10 rows in set (#.## sec)

Aggregate multiplication

Calculating compound interest:

Add all the logarithmic results together

SELECT SUM(LOG(1+ROR))
FROM investment;

+--------------------+
| SUM(LOG(1+ROR))    |
+--------------------+
| 0.68010598814117   |
+--------------------+

Determine the return percentage with compound interest

SELECT EXP(SUM(LOG(1+ROR)))
FROM investment;

+------------------------+
| EXP(SUM(LOG(1+ROR)))   |
+------------------------+
|     1.9740869509493    |
+------------------------+

Aggregate multiplication

Calculating compound interest:

Calculate the result
Over ten years, even including the bad years, the initial investment of $1,000 nearly doubled
Creative SQL can be used to solve perceived limitations in the language.

SELECT EXP(SUM(LOG(1+ROR)))*1000 FROM investment;

+-------------------------+
| EXP(SUM(LOG(1+ROR)))*1000 |
+-------------------------+
| 1974.0869509493          |
+-------------------------+

Running total query

In the course of almost every analytical presentation, someone will request that a running total be presented!

The following SQL example uses a self-join on the investment table to create the running total

SELECT a.YEAR, a.ROR,
    EXP(SUM(LOG(1+b.ROR)))*1000 AS balance
FROM investment a
JOIN investment b ON (a.YEAR >= b.YEAR)
GROUP BY a.YEAR, a.ROR;

Running total query

Notice how this statement works

SELECT a.YEAR, a.ROR,
EXP((LOG(1+b.ROR)))*1000 AS balance
FROM investment a
JOIN investment b ON (a.YEAR >= b.YEAR)
ORDER BY a.YEAR, a.ROR;

+------+----------+------------------+
| YEAR | ROR      | balance          |
+------+----------+------------------+
| 2000 |  0.0     | 1439.99999761581 |
| 2011 | -0.25    | 1439.99999761581 |
| 2011 | -0.25    | 1439.99999761581 |    750 |
| 2012 |  0.08    | 1439.99999761581 |
...
| 2019 | -0.21    | 1439.99999761581 |
| 2019 | -0.21    | 1439.9999821186 |    750 |
| 2019 | -0.21    | 1079.9999821186 |
+------+----------+------------------+

Control flow functions

IF(expr1,expr2,expr3)

If expr1 is TRUE (expr1 <> 0 and expr1 <> NULL) then IF() returns expr2; otherwise it returns expr3

IFNULL(expr1,exprNULL) returns expr1, or exprNULL if expr1 is NULL

Do not mix up with NULLIF(expr1,expr2) which returns expr1 if expr1<>expr2 otherwise NULL

Some numeric functions

CEIL(X)
- Returns the smallest integer value not less than X
- Synonym for CEILING()
FLOOR(X)
- Returns the largest integer value not greater than X
ROUND(X, D)
- Rounds or round up to D decimal places
ABS(X)
- Returns the non-negative number of X

Views, triggers and events

Views

Adapt and standardize table schema
Simplify, split, or factor complex reporting queries
Restrict visible table data to specific users and applications

An example of a view

A SQL Statement Represented as a Table
Views are Not Materialised
The SELECT Query always Re-Executes

CREATE VIEW emp_names AS
    SELECT emp_id, name_first, name_last
    FROM employees;

ALTER VIEW emp_names AS
    SELECT emp_id, name_first, name_middle, name_last,
    FROM employees;

SHOW FULL TABLES WHERE Table_type = 'VIEW';

SHOW CREATE VIEW emp_names \G

DROP VIEW emp_names;

Lesson summary

Gain an understanding of schema objects available within MariaDB
Learn how to use and create databases and tables, including temporal data tables, and flexible and invisible columns
Discuss data types and built-in functions, and their use cases
Learn how to create and use views, triggers, events, and sequences

Lab exercises

2-1 Creating a Database
2-2 Creating a Table
2-3 Creating Virtual Columns
2-4 Setting the Database Default Character Set
2-5 Creating and Comparing Tables for Multiple Storage Engines

For academic and non-commercial usage, licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 by MariaDB plc.